Effluent Treatment Plant: An Exigency to Prevent Water Pollution by Abdullah Al Moinee

Effluent Treatment Plant: An Exigency to Prevent Water Pollution 

Abdullah Al Moinee 

Water is the most essential element of the earth to fuel the flow of life. The eternal element is the sacred soul of earth and the essence of all existences. Life on earth would not exist without the presence of water. Earth has the right to sustain the lives nurturing them without being polluted. According to the World Atlas 2018, only 3% of the water occupying 70% of the earth’s surface, is considered as fresh water where 2.6% is inaccessible for human being. This leaves us with approximately 0.4% of the earth’s water which is usable and drinkable to be shared among the billions of inhabitants. As a consequence of inadequately planned industrialization, large amounts of wastewater containing organic matter and toxic heavy metals are discharged into the water bodies on a regular basis. This discharge poses a serious threat to ecosystems, aquatic life, and human health. The pollution not only contaminates water but also pollutes the air and soil which jeopardize human beings, plants, animals, fishes and even the small bacteria. The deterioration of a water body due to the discharge can be alleviated by adopting sensible steps. Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) can contribute securing the steps to meet the exigency of the earth preventing water pollution. 

Effluent is an out flowing of water or gas which is defined as the liquid waste or sewage discharged into a river or the sea. Many kind of industries e.g. textiles, tanneries, pulp and paper industries, food industries, iron and steel mills, mine and quarries, refineries, power plants produce wastewater from the production. In the production processes different kind of raw materials are applied that goes through robust reactions which results in the products and byproducts. The wastewater (effluent) as a byproduct of industrial production contains the toxicity of different microbes, soluble organics, dye, ammonia, salts, cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, protozoa, pesticides, carbon-dioxide, methane, and heavy metals e.g. arsenic, mercury, lead, cadmium, chromium, zinc most of which are dangerously detrimental to health and environment. Therefore, the effluent needs to be treated before discharging them into the environment for preventing the pollution. According to an industrial survey conducted by Bangladesh Center for Advanced Studies (BCAS) in 2009, only about 40% industries have ETPs (Effluent Treatment Plants) in our country. In 10% industries, ETPs are under construction and about 50% industries have no ETP establishment. That is, more than 50% of waste generated by the industries eventually goes to the rivers untreated. According to the Environment Conservation Act, 1995 (Amendment 2010), factories which are in “red category” are bound to install and run an ETP. Later, Institute of Water Modeling (IWM) and the World Bank conducted a survey of pollution in Dhaka Rivers in 2007 that showed there are over 300 various effluent discharge outlets in the capital. There are about 149 tanneries in one of locales of Dhaka city which daily generate about 18,000 liters liquid and about 115 metric tons solid waste almost all of which get released into the river Turag. The Tongi Industrial Area, other extreme pollution premises, possesses about 29 heavy industries. This cluster of industries of the capital city generates 7,159 kg effluents daily (IWM, 2008). Thus, ETP is an urge to be implemented by each of these industries. 

There are different kind of ETP plants are being installed on the combinations of physical, chemical, and biological unit operations. In a general operation of ETP, the wastewater as by-product flows from the main factory to the equalization tank sustaining a process of aeration. Thus the oxygen deficiency in the waste water is gradually reduced when pH and temperature are also maintained simultaneously. Then the biological treatment plant unit is followed by the equalization tank where activated bacteria are added to the water. Bacteria grow around some plastic rings to remove the impurities from the water through their metabolism. The process eventually reduces the biological oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) removing the organic pollutants from the wastewater. Later, the biologically treated effluent goes to the chemical treatment plant for coagulation and flocculation where chemical reagents are to be added to control the pH. There, small suspended particles join with one another and become heavier. Then the addition of polyelectrolytes with mechanical agitation makes the granules even bigger which triggers the separation of the particles and the liquid. As the suspended particles get heavier, they gradually moving down, and the water becomes cleaner at the top. Solids are separated from the liquid and taken to the tube settler. After settling the water in tube settler, the water is brought to two more filters. One is pressure sand filter and other is activated carbon filter. In the pressure sand filter, there are stone packs, at the bottom and sand above it. When the water is pumped and passed through the sand, suspended solids are trapped inside. Activated carbon is an effective adsorbent because it is a highly porous material and provides a large surface area to which contaminants may adsorb. Thus activated carbon adsorbs natural organic compounds, dyes, odor compounds, and synthetic organic chemicals from the water. Finally, the water is considered fully treated and it is flown outside. The solids are passed from tube settler to sludge thickening tank. When it reached at a particular density, the sludge is pumped to the filter press where liquid and solid gather at the center. Liquids are pushed out using pressure so solids are left there as cakes. Eventually the water goes out and the sludge is stored at the bottom. The water flows back to the original drain and the solids are carefully stored in the drums. Later, the stored sludge is disposed-off or reused as bio-solids in agricultural fields after proper stabilization processes of composting or anaerobic digestion. 

In environment–economic theory, pro-environmental behavior is not considered rational as it is assumed that individuals act to pursue only their own short-term economic benefits. In many cases, engineers and managers are considering their financial aspects over the environmental disaster fading the ethical aspects. Therefore, the theory concludes that state penalties or subsidies are essential to manage environmental and resource problems. Regarding penalties, monitoring and enforcement have been implemented in Bangladesh, although they are inadequate and not sufficiently institutionalized. The findings of researchers suggest that it is not so difficult for companies to install and operate ETPs in terms of the cost. Besides, financial solvency is not a barrier. Therefore, by making the monitoring and regulation strict, environmental compliance could be achieved for those who can afford to purchase and operate ETPs. In addition, the dominant barriers to ETP installation are at the purchase stage, rather than the construction stage: ETPs are unavailable in local markets and the import tax is high. Institutional arrangements are required to improve this situation which could include establishing a subsidy scheme that would encourage voluntary construction of central ETPs. To encourage setting up ETPs, the central bank of Bangladesh has given directives to other banks to provide low interest loans to industries for setting up ETPs. Some banks have taken initiatives in this regard. Even though some money needs to be invested to set up an ETP, in the long term it brings better customer satisfaction and a strong goodwill for the industry. To maintain this consistent growth, there is no alternative but to create a safe and environment favorable work place for all. Setting up ETPs is an important step in securing that which can contribute to create a good environment and progress of the industries. It is very hopeful that some industries in our country are installing effluent treatment plants to treat the wastewater and conserve the environment. 

Clean water-body is an oasis in the premises of pollution and so prevention of water contamination is the key for conserving a sustainable future. In earth, life depends on water but the reservoir depends on the inhabitants. The water people pollute will find its way back to them. So, the industry should escalate their awareness by working in agreement with the environment. The transformation of production technology, in connection with the environmental safety, which is mandated by the pollution prevention creates a new surge of economic development. It goes without saying that the industrial revolution is a great engine to accelerate the economic growth of any country. It also contributes greatly to reduce the unemployment problem. When the industrialization strengthens the economic growth of the country, it is a matter of great concern that the production process of these industries pollutes the water bodies of environment at an alarming rate. The untreated wastewater from the industries have deleterious effect on environment that can engender extinction and damage bio-diversity. So, there is no alternative but to set up ETPs, treating the wastewater of the factories with a view to sustaining the impulse of industrialization. The impulse will then sustain the shield against the pollution to protect the water of this earth as the essence of our lives. 

Biochar: A Way Forward to Agriculture and Environment by Abdullah Al Moinee

Biochar: A Way Forward to Agriculture and Environment 

Abdullah Al Moinee 

Environment of the Earth urges a sustainable development with a view to designing a greener threshold. The green framework is fueled by the enviable equilibrium in the field of agriculture. Biochar has the congruence to conserve the stability of agroecosystems gleaning the goal for improving environmental quality. The pivotal potential of biochar sustains the quality to generate renewable energy in an agreement with the environment providing a significant soil amendment to strengthen the yield of sustainable agriculture. Biochar is the product of pyrolysis in where the biomass turns into biofuel pertaining to the purpose of adding it to the productive field of agriculture. The production and application of bio-char to soil would not only improve soil and increase crop production, but also design an aspiring approach to structure a significant, long-term sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide to be sequestered reducing greenhouse gas emissions and bioavailability of environmental contaminants. 

According to International Biochar Initiative Scientific Advisory Committee, Biochar is a fine-grained charcoal, high in organic carbon (residue) and largely resistant to decomposition. It is produced from pyrolysis (direct thermal decomposition of materials at elevated temperature in the absence of oxygen to prevent combustion) of biomass i.e. plant and waste feedstocks (e.g. sawdust, nut shells, agricultural waste, grain crops etc.). It produces a mixture of solids (the biochar proper), liquid (bio-oil), and gas (syngas) products. As a soil amendment, biochar creates a recalcitrant soil carbon pool (nearly pure carbon in soils, in the form of amorphous graphite, not the carbon of living organisms, coal, or natural gas) that is carbon-negative, serving as a net withdrawal of atmospheric carbon dioxide while producing consumable bioenergy, sustaining enhanced nutrients, microbial activity, and moisture retention capacity, and reducing the requirements of irrigation and fertilizers and so environmental impacts. 

Pre-Columbian Amazonians are believed to have used biochar to enhance soil productivity. They seem to have produced it by smoldering agricultural waste (i.e. covering burning biomass with soil) in pits or trenches. Wim Sombroek, a renowned Dutch soil scientist, catalyzed the international interest by including several pages on the “terra preta” (black soil) and “terra mulata” (brown soil) in his influential 1966 book on Amazon soils. The dark color of terra preta and terra mulata is caused by the incorporation, by humans, of black carbon (also called biochar)—incompletely burned organic matter such as charcoal. The soils were created by Amerindian populations 500–2,500 years ago and some of the carbon in terra preta soils dates back to 450 B.C. Terra preta is limited to Amazonia, they are not used to grow crop or rice but they represent technology predating modern agriculture. This ancient indigenous technology renders the solutions to the existing problems so that experiences can be extracted to escalate the earth towards an agricultural and environmental equilibrium. 

A vast array of fertilizers and synthetic chemicals are applied on the agricultural fields by the farmers. If the systems focus only on the product intensification then the soil and environment will always be deprived of necessary nutrients. Optimum amount of carbon is needed for sustaining the positive productivity of soil. Biochar is organic in nature (nearly pure carbon) which has the necessary efficacy to nurture maintaining the environmental, physical and chemical structure of soil. The extremely porous structure and high surface area are found to be very effective for being habitat for many beneficial soil microorganisms and at retaining both water and water-soluble nutrients for plant health. Biochar can increase fertility of acidic soils (low pH soils), provide protection against some foliar and soil-borne diseases, and so increase agricultural productivity. Plants are therefore healthier, and less fertilizer leaches into surface or groundwater. Thermal degradation (pyrolysis) of cellulose results in a rigid amorphous C matrix. The matrix is efficient enough to bind with the heavy metals immobilizing the pollutants and improving water quality. 

The agricultural waste and other waste from different feedstocks are converted by biochar into a soil enhancer that can receive and conceive the internal cycle of sequestered carbon. When put in soil biochar sequesters carbon for 1000’s of years. The carbon footprint is negative because it holds carbon from that would otherwise remain in the active carbon cycle. In this way, biochar catalyzes climate change mitigation as it allows carbon input into soils and reduce the formation of GHGs (Greenhouse Gases) e.g. methane, carbon mono oxide, nitrogen oxides which are responsible for global warming. 

If biochar is used for the production of energy rather than as a soil amendment, it can be directly substituted for any application that uses coal. Pyrolysis also may be the most cost-effective way of electricity generation from biomaterial. The pyrolysis of biomass residue generates a biofuel without competition with crop production. 

Biochar has potential to be introduced in market and utilized extensively by farmers. When biochar is exposed to steam and high-pressure oxygen at high temperatures the coproduct is to be transformed into activated carbon, which can absorb infected elements of gas decontamination, gold refinement, metal mining, water refinement, medicine, sewage management, and air filtration. If carbon offset markets develop, biochar can provide income for farmers and ranchers who use it to sequester carbon in soil utilizing the economic feasibility, production methods, and application techniques. 

Biochar can play a vital role in the areas where soils deplete highly in lack of sufficient organic resources, and scarce of water. Thus, biochar impact may depend on regional conditions including soil type, soil condition (depleted or healthy), temperature, and humidity. Studies have reported positive effects from biochar on crop production in degraded and nutrient–poor soils. Biochar of high surface area may be particularly problematic in this regard and so more research into the long-term effects of biochar addition to soil is needed. 

Biochar develops the way forward to agriculture and environment reflecting the robustness of sustainability. The sustainable approach sparks the socioeconomical advancements in bioenergy production, waste management, wastewater treatment, mitigation of climate change, and food security on soil improvement. The aspirations inspire to step onward researching for the further development of sustainable agriculture production systems. The research on the many complex issues related to biochar production systems is perpetually going on and will be needed to more fully understand the implications for agricultural food systems, the environment and bioenergy production. Considering the financial, social, and technical aspects along with the environment and public safety the framework for research and development is formulating innovative mechanisms for the adept adoption of the biochar technology. 

Microbial Fuel Cell: A Sustainable Threshold for Renewable Energy by Abdullah Al Moinee

Microbial Fuel Cell: A Sustainable Threshold for Renewable Energy 

Abdullah Al Moinee 

Environment, Energy, and Engineering can make the Earth Elegant together by dint of sustainable development. Sustainable development ensures the environmental safety to sustain the renewable energy. The world is on the verge of energy crisis, pollution, and environmental instability. Renewable energy source as alternative fuel is to be emerged and harnessed for the stability of climate and environment to deal with the descending level of existing sources. Production of electrical energy utilizing of microorganisms through Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) is one such renewable and sustainable technology that is considered to be one of the most efficient and carbon neutral energy sources. 

A microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a bio-electrochemical device that harnesses the power of microbes (bacteria, algae, fungi etc.) during cellular respiration to convert organic substrates directly into electrical energy. Cellular respiration is a collection of metabolic reactions that cells use to convert nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which fuels cellular activity. At its core, the MFC is a fuel cell, which transforms chemical energy. into electricity using oxidation-reduction reactions. The key difference of course is in the name, microbial fuel cells rely on living biocatalysts to facilitate the movement of electrons throughout their systems instead of the traditional chemically catalyzed oxidation of a fuel cell at the anode and reduction at the cathode. 

In early Twentieth century botany professor at the University of Durham, M. C. Potter, first came up with the idea of using microbes to produce electricity in 1911. The overall reaction in MFC can be considered an exothermic redox reaction according to his idea. Potter managed to generate electricity from E.coli but the work received little coverage. While Potter succeeded in generating electricity from E. coli, his work went unnoticed for another two decades before Barnet Cohen created the first microbial half fuel cells in 1931. By connecting his half cells in series, he was able to generate a meager current of 2 milliamps. By 1999, researchers in South Korea discovered a MFC milestone. B.H. Kim et al developed the mediatorless MFC which greatly enhanced the MFC's commercial viability, by eliminating costly mediator chemicals required for electron transport. The principle of MFC is to collect the electrons released by bacteria as they respire. This leads to two types of MFCs: mediator and mediatorless. Prior to 1999, most MFCs required a mediator chemical to transfer electrons from the bacterial cells to the electrode. Mediators like neutral red, humic acid, thionine, methyl blue, and methyl viologen were expensive and often toxic, making the technology difficult to commercialize. Research performed by B. H. Kim et al in 1999 led to the development of a new type of MFC's mediatorless MFCs. The Fe (III) reducer Shewanella putrefaciens, unlike most MFC bacteria at the time, were electrochemically active. This bacteria had the ability to respire directly into the electrode under certain conditions by using the anode as an electron acceptor as part of its normal metabolic process. Bacteria that can transfer electrons extracellularly through their pili, are called exoelectrogens. 

The direct communication of exoelectrogens like Geobacter species that are capable of oxidizing organic compounds and their efficiency in transferring electrons to electrodes via highly conductive filaments were considered remarkable in MFC research Mixed bacterial cultures can produce power densities equal to pure cultures and gradual increases in power densities accelerated the research interest on MFCs. 

The most foreseeable application of an MFC is in waste water treatment. Microbes have affinity to sewage, and the conditions of a waste water treatment plant are ideal for the types of bacteria that can be used in an MFC. Exoelectrogens are more than vivacious to breakdown and metabolize the carbon rich sewage of a waste water stream to produce electrons that can stream into a cheap conductive carbon cloth anode. The electricity generated from the MFC also offsets the energy cost of operating the plant. As an additional fact, the bacteria eat a lot of the sludge normally present in waste water. Moreover , in another process of MFC, an anode coated in one type of bacteria performs the standard oxidation reaction converting dirty water into clean water while producing electricity. The electrons travel to the cathode where electrodes coated with a different type of bacteria convert electricity, hydrogen and carbon dioxide into pure methane fuel in a process called electromethanogenisis. The methane can be routed back to the plant to provide clean heat and energy. MFC's don't only have to be used for power generation, they can also be used as a convenient biosensor for waste water streams. As an added bonus, the MFC biosensors power themselves from the waste water stream. 

The Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) has a very different idea of how remotely operated vehicles could be powered in space, they have begun work on a prototype rover that is powered by the bacteria Geobacter sulfurreducens, an exoelectrogen with a pentient for breaking down metals. This bacteria was selected for its high energy density compared to lithium-ion power sources, and the overall resilience, ruggedness and longevity of the MFC it supports. The MFC would only be able to power low load devices such as the rover's electronics, sensors and control system. The battery or capacitor would be used for higher power loads, like locomotion or operation of a more power intensive scientific instrument. Since a rover spends a large amount of time stationary analysing samples, the MFC could be used to recharge the batteries or supercapacitors for the next heavy load. 

Heavy metals play a major role in several industrial, medical, and household applications. However, as constituents of effluents from many industries, heavy metals also pose a serious problem to the environment and public health due to their toxicity, bioaccumulation, and non-biodegradability. Conventional physical, chemical, and biological methodologies to treat wastewater containing heavy metals are energy-intensive and become ineffective if metals concentrations are below 1–100 mgL−1. Microbial fuel cells appear promising for wastewater treatment and metal recovery by bioelectrocatalysis because metal ions can be reduced and deposited by bacteria, algae, yeasts, and fungi. Interestingly, treatment of heavy metal-containing wastewater can be attempted in both anode and cathode chambers of microbial fuel cells removing and recovering the metals. 

MFC has been emerged as a promising, yet challenging technology to extract energy from different sources and turn them into electricity. Despite the rapid progress, there are some areas in which further research needs to be done to overcome the constraints associated with MFC. The major challenge in the application of MFCs is its low power density. Perhaps the most significant issue to deal with global market is to the successful commercialization to produce electricity at a sufficiently high rate to provide at least a significant portion of the power needs of a large wastewater facility.Though the electron transfer mechanism is understood in some bacteria, further research is needed to create genetically engineered strains to generate more current. It turns out that microbial fuel cells make an excellent introduction to the fields of microbiology, soil chemistry, and engineering. As our understanding of microbial metabolisms, genomics, and genetic modification deepens, better exoelectrogens are produced and new applications are discovered. Provided the biological under-standing increases, the electrochemical technology advances and the overall accessories of MFC construction and cost consideration for a large scale decrease, this technology might qualify as a new core technology for generating bioelectricity from biowaste in years to come to open a greener and sustainable threshold of renewable energy for the Earth. 

DNA: The Inborn Identity by Abdullah Al Moinee

DNA: The Inborn Identity 

Abdullah Al Moinee 

Identity is the inborn definition of a design which denotes the information to represent the interconnected independence of individuality. DNA is such a molecule delineating the inborn identity. DNA sustains the genetic directions utilized in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of human being along with all known living organisms and many viruses. All the possible scenarios of a person's life must conform to the designs in DNA. 

DNA (DeoxyRibonucleic Acid) & RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) are nucleic acids; alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates, they are one of the four major types (nucleic acids, proteins, lipids & carbohydrates) of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. 

DNA was first isolated by Friedrich Miescher in 1869. Its molecular structure was first identified by James Watson and Francis Crick at the Cavendish Laboratory within the University of Cambridge in 1953, whose model-building efforts were guided by X-ray diffraction data acquired by Raymond Gosling, who was a post-graduate student of Rosalind Franklin. DNA is used by researchers as a molecular tool to explore physical laws and theories, such as the ergodic theorem and the theory of elasticity. The unique material properties of DNA have made it an attractive molecule for material scientists and engineers interested in micro- and nano-fabrication. 

DNA is the store house of data. 1 single gram of DNA is capable of holding an amazing 700 terabytes of data. If we want to store all digital information in this world, all we need is 2 grams of DNA. Scientists have found out that a total of 510 DNA codes have been lost throughout the process of human evolution. Besides, it has been found in research that if one could type 60 words per minute, eight hours a day, it would take approximately 50 years to type the human genome. Moreover, one can fit 25,000 strands of DNA side by side into the width of a single human hair. If all three billion letters in the human genome were stacked one millimeter apart, they would reach a height 7,000 times the height of the Empire State Building. 

DNA is present in each and every cell of human body. Each DNA strand is 1.8 meters long but squeezed into a space of 0.09 micrometers! If someone manages to unwind all DNA molecules in a human body and place them end to end, the total length that can be covered is 10 billion miles. That’s the distance covered in a trip from Earth to Pluto and back to Earth. If one puts all the DNA molecules in the body end to end, the DNA would reach from the Earth to the Sun. 

DNA of anyone is 99.9 per cent identical to that of anyone else. It’s the other 0.1 percent that makes one person different from another. There were some ancient viruses that used to infect humans but today, 8% of human DNA is actually made of those ancient viruses. It is so true that, Human DNA is 95% identical to the DNA of chimpanzees. Indeed, it is surprising but human DNA is 50% identical to the DNA of bananas & 40-50% of green leafy cabbages. 

DNA is the blueprint of our lives. The DNA is tightly coiled up and structured into 46 chromosomes. Our chromosomes are arranged in pairs. We inherit one copy of the pair from each of our parents. One chromosome can have as little as 50 million base pairs or as much as 250 million base pairs. Even though DNA codes for all the information that makes up an organism, DNA is built using only four building blocks, the nucleotides adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine (C). The design instructions in DNA are spelled out as particular sequences of these four bases. This is analogous to conveying instructions in printed books by particular arrangements of the twenty-six letters of the alphabet. In the case of genes, however, there are only four letters in the alphabet. The designs are called genes. Some genes play a role in regulating other genes, and some design ribonucleic acid, a close relative of DNA. But mostly, the designs in DNA are for the class of chemicals called proteins. The human body contains tens of thousands of kinds of proteins, which do all the body's work. Interactions among those proteins, and interactions between them and environmental factors account for the processes and structures of the body. Those processes and structures are manifested as inherited traits. 

Sections of DNA that code for proteins are called genes. The complete set of genetic information for an organism is called the genome. Genes are pieces of DNA passed from parent to offspring that contain hereditary information. The average gene is 10,000 to 15,000 bases long. The segment of DNA designated a gene is made up of exons and introns. There are an estimated 20,000 to 25,000 genes in our genome. In 2000, a rough draft of the human genome (complete DNA sequence) was completed. In 2003, the final draft of the human genome was completed. The first animal to have its DNA completely sequenced was a nematode worm in 1998. All life-forms have DNA, but the only animal with ‘dna’ in its name is the echidna. There is a memory device orbiting the Earth aboard International Space Station that contains the DNA of Stephen Hawking, Stephen Colbert, Lance Armstrong, among others, in case of some worldwide catastrophe. It is called the “Immortality Drive.” 

Mutations are the changes in the DNA sequence. Many thing can cause mutations, including UV irradiation from the sun, chemicals like drugs, et. DNA is affected by the environment; environmental factors can turn genes on and off. DNA draws a plan known as RNA (Ribonucleic acid). It constructs a building called Protein. A DNA mutation or variation may be associated with a higher risk of a number of diseases. Any mutation in DNA results in change in RNA which synthesizes wrong protein leading to genetic disorders. DNA tests can help you understand your family history i.e. genetic genealogy DNA can be extracted from many different types of samples: blood, cheek cells, urine. DNA can be stored either as cells on a cotton swab, buccal brush, or frozen blood or in extracted form. In forensics, DNA analysis usually looks at 13 specific DNA markers (segments of DNA). Moreover, genetically modified crops have DNA from another organism inserted to give the crops properties like pest resistance. 

Every aspect of nature reveals a deep mystery and touches our sense of wonder and so the DNA does with its inborn and infinite identity. The deep mystery of DNA creates wonder which is the basis of man's desire to know forth which opens the threshold of curiosities in the vastness of DNA. A group of scientists transcribed the song “It’s a Small World After All” into the DNA of a bacteria that is resistant to radioactivity, so that in the event of a nuclear catastrophe, we could pass a message on to future intelligent life. The Hornsleth Deep Storage Project has lowered a vast iron sculpture into the Marianas Trench, which will be filled with human blood, hair samples, and animal DNA so that it could be used to bring people and endangered species back to life in the future. These research on DNA is so dedicated which aspires scientist to be inspired going for a thousand miles which will design a huge leap for mankind. 

Blood: The Essential Fluid to Fuel the Life by Abdullah Al Moinee

Blood: The Essential Fluid to Fuel the Life 

Abdullah Al Moinee 

Life is a fusion of organized organic systems which are webbed and fueled by means of the blood circulation. Blood is the fluid that transports energy, nutrients, metabolic waste, and essential biomolecules to all tissues and circulates in the heart, capillaries, arteries and veins carrying oxygen to and carbon dioxide from the tissues of the body. 

Medical terms regarding blood often start with hemo which is derived from the Greek word αἷμα (haima) for "blood". In terms of anatomy and histology, blood is considered as a specialized form of connective tissue, given its origin in the bones and the presence of potential molecular fibers in the form of fibrinogen. 

In ancient time humans must have realized how blood signifies life. They must have observed that the loss of blood usually leads to death. So, the transfer of blood from one person to another is an ancient idea. In 1492, the first reported blood transfusion occurred. The transfusion was done on Pope Innocent VII in Rome. His doctors advised to transfuse blood from three healthy individuals as a therapeutic measure for his illness. However, the outcome of this blood transfusion was not successful and the Pope died soon after. William Harvey, an English physician discovered how blood circulated around the body, with the heart pumping blood into the body through the arteries, and the blood returning back to the heart through the veins in 1628. Later, in 1665, the first successful blood transfusion was recorded. Experiments were done by an English physician, Richard Lower, who transfused blood from one dog to another. Most of the dogs survived the transfusion. 

Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. In animals with lungs, arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to the tissues of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism produced by cells, from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled. Blood is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma in vertebrates,. Plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, of which approximately 92% is water. Blood plasma also consists of hormones, glucose, proteins, gases, electrolytes, nutrients, blood cells themselves. The blood cells are mainly red blood cells (RBCs) or erythrocytes, white blood cells (WBCs) or leukocytes, and platelets or thrombocytes. Red blood cells perform many important functions within the body. RBCs fuel the supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids and removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid. The immunological functions and detection of foreign material by antibodies are bolstered by the white blood cells. The defensive system is thus formed by the WBCs. White blood cells are responsible for fighting viruses, bacteria and other infectious diseases. They also fight cancer cells and other unwanted material that enter human body. Platelets are completely different and are responsible for blood clotting whenever bleeding occurs because of a cut. Platelets functions on coagulation as the response to a broken blood vessel for the conversion of blood from a liquid to a semisolid gel to stop bleeding.

Hemoglobin is the principal determinant of the color of blood in vertebrates which is contained by RBCs. Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein, which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly binding to this respiratory gas and greatly increasing its solubility in blood. In contrast, carbon dioxide is mostly transported extracellularly as bicarbonate ion transported in plasma. Each molecule of hemoglobin has four heme groups, and their interaction with various molecules alters the exact color. In vertebrates and other hemoglobin-using creatures, arterial blood and capillary blood are bright red, as oxygen imparts a strong red color to the heme group. Deoxygenated blood is a darker shade of red; this is present in veins, and can be seen during blood donation and when venous blood samples are taken . 

Blood contributes for 7% of the human body weight, with an average density around 1060 kg/m3, very close to pure water's density of 1000 kg/m3. The average adult has a blood volume of roughly 5 litres, which is composed of plasma and several kinds of cells. It has to be noted that An adult body has 100,000 kilometers or 60,000 miles of blood vessels running throughout the body. The only place where blood cannot be found in human body is the cornea (eye) because cornea is capable of directly extracting oxygen from air. Scientists have come up with a method that can be used to send oxygen directly to blood without using the lungs. More than 400 gallons of blood are filtered by our kidneys every single day. Kidneys are actually responsible for regulating the production of red blood cells in human body. Kidneys are responsible for producing erythropoietin hormone (EPO) that binds with the receptors in stem cell walls in bone marrow and after a complex set of events, the DNA of stem cells are transformed into red blood cells. Kidneys will release EPO only when it finds that oxygen levels in blood have gone below normal. In other words, kidneys are responsible for measuring levels of oxygen in blood. People suffering with kidney failure generally become anemic because kidneys fail to produce enough EPO that can stimulate the production of red blood cells in bone marrow. This however never means that all anemic patients have failed kidneys. 

In a healthy human breathing, air at sea-level pressure is chemically combined with the hemoglobin constituting about 98.5% of the oxygen In a sample of arterial blood. The hemoglobin molecule is the primary transporter of oxygen in mammals and many other species Hemoglobin has an oxygen binding capacity between 1.36 and 1.40 ml O2 per gram hemoglobin which increases the total blood oxygen capacity seventyfold, compared to if oxygen solely were carried by its solubility of 0.03 ml O2 per liter blood per mm Hg partial pressure of oxygen. On the other hand, CO2 is carried in blood in three different ways. 70% of the CO2 is converted into bicarbonate ion by dint of the enzyme named carbonic anhydrase in the red blood cells (CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + HCO− ). Besides, about 7% of the carbon dioxide is dissolved in the plasma and about 23% of it is bound to hemoglobin as carbamino compounds. Hemoglobin, the main oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells, carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide. However, the CO2 bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen. Instead, it combines with the N-terminal groups on the four globin chains. 

Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure of circulating blood that exerts on the walls of blood vessels. It usually refers to the pressure in large arteries of the systemic circulation. Blood pressure is usually expressed in terms of the systolic pressure (maximum during one heart beat) over diastolic pressure (minimum in between two heart beats) and is measured in millimeters of mercury (mm-Hg), above the surrounding atmospheric pressure. Blood pressure is one of the vital signs, along with respiratory rate, heart rate, oxygen saturation, and body temperature. Normal resting blood pressure in an adult is approximately 120 millimetres of mercury (16 kPa) systolic, and 80 millimetres of mercury (11 kPa) diastolic, abbreviated "120/80 mmHg". 

Blood accounts for transfusion is obtained from human donors by blood donation and stored in a blood bank. There are many different blood types in humans, the ABO blood group system, and the Rhesus blood group system being the most important. Transfusion of blood of an incompatible blood group may cause severe, often fatal, complications, so cross matching is done to ensure that a compatible blood product is transfused. The ABO blood group system was discovered in the year 1900 by Karl Landsteiner. Jan Janský is credited with the first classification of blood into the four types (A, B, AB, and O) in 1907, which remains in use today. In 1907 the first blood transfusion was performed that used the ABO system to predict compatibility. Though we are familiar with common blood types A, B, AB and O, which is a part of simplified ABO system, there are actually around 30 different recognized blood groups or blood types on which researches are going on. 

Hormone: A Chemical Communicator by Abdullah Al Moinee

Hormone: A Chemical Communicator

Abdullah Al Moinee 

Hormones are the energy of the life and essence of human survival. Hormone itself, as a word is derived from the Greek participle “ὁρμῶ”, which means "to set in motion or urge on." A hormone is any member of a class of signaling molecules produced by glands in multicellular organisms. Hormones are transported by the circulatory system to target organs to regulate human psychology and physiology as a biochemical engineer sustaining the essence of life. 

In the 1800s, scientists started to think that some sort of chemical communication must take place between different organs in the body, and they later recognized that certain disorders could be treated with extracts from endocrine tissues. But the term "hormone" wasn't gleaned until the early 1900s. In 1902, English physiologists William Bayliss and Ernest Starling concluded that the chemicals, which they later named hormones, controlled the secretions of the pancreas. 

Hormones are the chemical messengers in the body that are created in the endocrine glands and secreted directly into the bloodstream to tissues or organs. As a chemical messenger, a hormone works to engineer the communication between organs and tissues for physiological regulation and behavioral activities controlling the essence and urge of life such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, functions of tissues, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth, movement, reproduction, and mood. 

A hormone designs a perpetual pathway as an engineer to continue the journey through human body. Firstly, a particular hormone goes through biosynthesis in a particular tissue. Then hormone is stored and secreted from the selective places of the tissues. Later, the signals engender the hormone to transport specifically. The intracellular receptor or associated cell membrane recognize the hormone on the basis of selective specification. Then, the signal transduction process aids for relay and amplification. This leads to a cellular response. The reaction of the target cells may then be recognized by the original hormone-producing cells, leading to a down-regulation in hormone production. Finally, the breakdown process of hormone occurs spontaneously under specific environment. 

The eight hormone-secreting glands of the endocrine system are the adrenal gland, hypothalamus, pancreas, parathyroid gland, pineal gland, pituitary gland, reproductive glands and thyroid gland. But some other organs and tissues that are not generally considered part of the endocrine system also produce and secrete hormones. For instance, the stomach releases the hunger-inducing hormone ghrelin and the hormone gastrin, which stimulates the secretion of gastric acid. 

Hormone secretion may occur in many tissues. Endocrine glands are the cardinal example, but specialized cells in various other organs also secrete hormones. Like the nervous system, the endocrine system is an information signal system. There are two types of glands in the body: exocrine and endocrine. Exocrine glands include the salivary glands, sweat glands and mammary glands and excrete their products through ducts. Endocrine glands, by contrast, release their products (hormones) without ducts, directly into the bloodstream. 

Hormone secretion occurs in response to specific biochemical signals from a wide range of regulatory systems. Serum calcium concentration affects parathyroid hormone synthesis; blood sugar affects insulin synthesis; because the outputs of the stomach and exocrine pancreas become the input of the small intestine, the small intestine secretes hormones to stimulate the stomach and pancreas. The pancreas has both endocrine and exocrine functions. On one hand, it releases a number of hormones, including insulin and glucagon, into the bloodstream. But it also secretes a pancreatic juice that contains important digestive enzymes via ducts into the small intestine. 

Hormonal imbalance that happen as a result of exposure to toxins, an unbalanced lifestyle or thyroid issues or diabetes, can lead to serious health disorders. Trouble in sleeping may be a symptom for hormonal problems. Researchers believe that one week of camping, without electronics, can help the body synchronizes melatonin hormones with sunrise and sunset. More sunlight exposure for a man can likely elevate testosterone levels as there is a positive correlation between vitamin D and testosterone levels. Vitamin D is the only vitamin that is also a hormone. Its deficiency can lead to numerous mental illnesses such as depression and Schizophrenia. Diabetes is a disease in which the pancreas stops producing insulin, the hormone that regulates blood sugar levels. Besides, alcohol has widespread effects on the endocrine system. Alcohol can impair the regulation of blood-sugar levels by interfering with certain hormones, reduce testosterone levels in men by damaging the testes and increase the risk of osteoporosis. 

The endocrine system quickly secretes various hormones in response to stress at higher-than-normal levels in order to help the body mobilize more energy and adapt to new circumstances. The pituitary-adrenal axis starts releasing adrenaline to increase the volume of blood pumped out by the heart and the blood flowing to the skeletal muscles. Moreover, cortisol is a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex and it is released in response to the stress and low blood-glucose concentration. It inhibits the peripheral use of glucose and decreases the growth of bone. During acute physical stress, the pituitary gland may also ramp up the secretion of the growth hormone, which enhances metabolic activity. But prolonged or frequent stressful events can lead to a number of endocrine disorders, including Graves' disease, gonadal dysfunction and obesity. 

In the late 19th century and early 20th century, many endocrine system studies were generated on dogs, rather than on more typical lab animals, such as mice and guinea pigs. In 1889, German physiologist Oskar Minkowski and German physician Josef von Mering induced diabetes in dogs by removing their pancreases. Five years later, English physiologist Sir Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer and English physician George Oliver took extracts from the adrenal glands of dogs and injected them into other dogs, which resulted in hypertension and rapid heartbeat. 

Plants do not have an endocrine system or endocrine glands, unlike humans and other animals. But they do have hormones, which affect various processes related to plant growth, including gene expression, metabolism and cell division. Plant cells sometimes produce hormones to use locally, but they may also transport the chemicals to other areas using specialized elongated cells or other means. 

Hormones are the engineer of human essences to design the pathway fueling the activities of life significantly. The natural designs of many hormones with their structural and functional analogs are utilized as medications. Insulin, as mentioned earlier, is used by many diabetics. General preparations and compositions for utilizing in otolaryngology often contain pharmacologic equivalents of adrenaline. In dermatology, steroid and vitamin D creams are extensively prescribed. The most commonly prescribed hormones are estrogens and progestogens as methods of hormonal contraception and as hormone replacement therapy (HRT), thyroxine as levothyroxine for hypothyroidism and steroids for autoimmune diseases and several respiratory disorders.